A Closer look at three woodcuts from the Works of Tertullian
This edition of the Works of Tertullian contains the most intricately detailed woodcuts within the Bader-Hatcher acquisition. Johann Froben's editions featured many illustrations designed and executed by the well-known artist, Hans Holbein the Younger, his brother Ambrosius Holbein, and Jacob Faber. These frames and illustrations often featured scenes from Classical literature, mythology, parables, and dialogues. It is at this point in time that printers began to experiment with the title page by adding decorations or details describing how and why their edition was the superior copy available.
The first decorative border used was created by Ambrosius Holbein, based on Lucien's treatise, On Salaried Posts in Great Houses, a dialogue that deals with the poor conditions enslaved scholars in rich households faced in Rome. It was a well-known rhetorical dialogue during the Renaissance and was understood by people as a satire on courtly life. Erasmus' 1506 Latin translation of the dialogue drew special attention and it was used by contemporary writers as a model for criticizing life at court. Froben was especially fond of the scene and claimed in a letter to his friend, Thomas More, that no artist could produce a work to match the descriptive language used by Lucien in describing courtly life.
Ambrosius Holbein depicts the Imago Vitae Aulicae as a continuous narrative within the bottom panel. Each figure stands below a caption noting who they are in the narrative. In the bottom right corner, the Courtier is greeted at the door by Hope (Spes) who will lead him through the hall. They pass Wealth (Opulenta) who sits on a throne overseeing the gathered court. Deceit (Fallacia) and Servitude (Servitus) take the Courtier from Hope and pass him to Toil (Labor). After a life of labour, the Courtier is escorted by Toil and Hope to Old Age (Senecta). Insolence (Contumfia) takes hold of him and leads him to Despair (Desperatio) where he will lose hold of Hope and she will fly away. He leaves this courtly life not through the golden gateway that greeted him but escorted by Despair through a hidden back door as a naked, wretched man covering his shame with one hand and strangling himself with the other. Outside he is greeted by Penitence (Penitudo), who helps him to the end of his life.
The top section of the frame depicts two myths related to the god Apollo; they were likely chosen to accompany the Imago Vitae Aulicae due to their common themes. In both myths, Apollo is in pursuit of a desired prize, like the Courtier guided by Hope.
In the image on the left, Mercury hands Apollo a lyre. In the myth, Mercury or Hermes invented the lyre as an infant and offers to trade it with Apollo to appease the god's anger once he realizes Hermes stole his sacred cattle. In return for the lyre, Hermes would get to keep the cattle. Apollo agrees and receives the lyre and Hermes becomes the messenger of the gods.
In the image on the right, Apollo chases Daphne as she is turned into a laurel tree. In the myth, Apollo had angered Cupid and as an act of revenge, he strikes Apollo with an arrow that encourages love, and hits a beautiful nymph named Daphne with an arrow that halts love. Apollo falls in love with Daphne upon seeing her and calls out to her. She flees from him, leading Apollo to chase her on a long footrace. As she approaches the banks of the river, she cries out to her father, the god of the river, for protection, and he turns her into the first laurel tree.
The sides of the frame feature Venus, Fortuna, Flattery (Adulacio), and Cupid. The feminine figures were likely depicted as pregnant because it is a prominent motif used for goddesses associated with fertility, love, or bounty.
The second ornamental frame included in the book was designed by Hans Holbein the Younger, depicting the legend of Tantalus.
Tantalus was the King of Lydia and he was invited to Olympus by Zeus to sit at his table. He violated Zeus' hospitality by stealing nectar and ambrosia, the food and drink of the gods, to bring back to his people. To apologize, he invited the gods to his palace. To test their omniscience, he murdered and cut up his son Pelops to serve him in a banquet. Nearly all the gods present realized what Tantalus had done except for Demeter, who was distraught over the loss of her daughter Persephone to the Underworld and ate part of the boy's shoulder. Zeus ordered Clotho, one of the three Fates, to bring Pelops back to life. She gathered up the parts of his body and with a shoulder rebuilt in ivory by Hephaestus and presented by Demeter, he was boiled in a sacred cauldron and revived.
Tantalus was punished and cast down to Tartarus. His punishment was that he was trapped standing in a tepid lake where the water reached his knees and there was a fruit tree bearing fruit overhead. If he reached up for something to eat the branches retreated from his reach, and if he bent down to drink the water it receded from him; thus, he was doomed to an eternity of deprivation of nourishment.
The third and final ornamental border featured in the Works is one of the Tabula Cebetis woodcuts that Hans Holbein the Younger designed. It is an artistic rendition of a dialogue by Cebes of Thebes (ca. 430-350 B.C.E.) describing a panoramic painting of life in allegorical terms. The dialogue occurs between a group of youths contemplating the painting which is said to have been in the temple to Cronus in Athens or Thebes. An old man approaches the group and explains the meaning of the tablet. The intent behind the allegorical depiction of life is to show that only through properly developing the mind and possessing real virtues can one attain true happiness.
The Journey of Human Life, as it was also known, is an allegory that warns of the dangers that threaten to distract those who pursue a life of piety and study. As various intellectual movements swept across Europe, the allegory present within the Tabula Cebetis continued to resonate with scholars.
The tablet is often depicted as three enclosed areas populated by individuals in pursuit of true happiness. Each area is connected by a single gate and a path the individual must follow.
Genius guards the entrance of the first wall and is depicted as a wisened old man. He shoos a mass of cherubs away, those not yet ready to begin their journey. Within the first enclosure, one is greeted by Persuasion (Suadela) and Opinion (Opinioes) and further inside a crowd gathers around a statue of Fortuna. Opinions and Persuasion can tempt those on the path to leave it like those who fell for false Fortune depicted as a statue. The path curves from Fortune and through an archway to the next enclosure.
The majority of the third enclosure is blocked by the text but the path snakes to the left where one must pass Luxury (Luxuria) and Incontinence (Incontinentia) which appeal to hedonistic desires. The path curves to the right to pass Avarice (Avaritia) by the archway if one stays on the path.
The final enclosed section of Hans Holbein's depiction has the pursuer of True Happiness pass Sadness (Tristitia) and Pain (Dolor) attempting to convince those along the path to give up their journey. Penitence (Penitentia) greets weary travellers at the last gate with open arms.
The journey is not over yet, however, as False Discipline (Falsa Disciplina) greets travellers, dressed opulently to convince those on the path. This outer section between the indulgences of the mind and body below and True Happiness above is well-populated, showing how many are convinced to halt their pursuit.
Those who rise above false discipline are greeted by Boldness (Audacia) and Strength (Fortitudo). At the final wall, the traveller is greeted by Persuasion (Persuasia), Truth (Veritas), and True Discipline (Vera Disciplina), illustrating the virtues that they have achieved through their pursuits. The traveller then passes the seven holy virtues: humility, charity, chastity, gratitude, temperance, patience, and diligence. Finally, they are rewarded by Happiness (Felicitas) outside of her palace, the centre of true happiness, (Arx Verae Felicitatis).